Linguistic and Social Contexts Definition and Examples

Pronunciation: KON-text Adjective: contextual. Etymology: From the Latin, join weave In communication and composition, context refers to the words and sentences that surround any part of a discourse and that help to determine its meaning. Sometimes called linguistic context. In a broader sense, context may refer to any aspects of an occasion in which a speech-act takes place, including the social setting and the status of both the speaker and the person whos addressed. Sometimes called social context. Our choice of words is constrained by the context in which we use the language. Our personal thoughts are shaped by those of others, says author Claire Kramsch. Observations In common use almost every word has many shades of meaning, and therefore needs to be interpreted by the context, says textbook writer Alfred Marshall. The mistake is to think of words as entities. They depend for their force, and also for their meaning, on emotional associations and historical overtones, and derive much of their effect from the impact of the whole passage in which they occur. Taken out of their context, they are falsified. I have suffered a great deal from writers who have quoted this or that sentence of mine either out of its context or in juxtaposition to some incongruous matter which quite distorted my meaning, or destroyed it altogether, says Alfred North Whitehead, British mathematician and philosopher. Text and Context [British linguist M.A.K. Halliday] maintains that meaning should be analyzed not only within the linguistic system, but also taking into account the social system in which it occurs. In order to accomplish this task, both text and context must be considered. Context is a crucial ingredient in Hallidays framework: Based on the context, people make predictions about the meanings of utterances, says Patricia Mayes, PhD, an associate professor of English at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee. The Linguistic and Nonlinguistic Dimensions of Context According to the book, Rethinking Context: Language as an Interactive Phenomenon, Recent work in a number of different fields has called into question the adequacy of earlier definitions of context in favor of a more dynamic view of the relationship between linguistic and non-linguistic dimensions of communicative events. Instead of viewing context as a set of variables that statically surround strips of talk, context and talk are now argued to stand in a mutually reflexive relationship to each other, with talk, and the interpretive work it generates, shaping context as much as context shapes talk. Language is not merely a set of unrelated sounds, clauses, rules, and meanings; it is a total coherent system of these integrating with each other, and with behavior, context, universe of discourse, and observer perspective, says American linguist and anthropologist Kenneth L. Pike. Vygotskys Influence on Studies of Context in Language Use According to writer, Larry W. Smith, Although [Belarusian psychologist Lev] Vygotsky did not write extensively specifically about the concept of context, all of his work implies the importance of context both at the level of individual speech acts (whether in inner speech or social dialogue) and at the level of historical and cultural patterns of language use. Vygotskys work (as well as that of others) has been an impetus in the development of the recognition of the need to pay close attention to context in studies of language use. For example, an interactionist approach following Vygotsky is readily compatible with recent developments in such linguistics- and language-associated fields as sociolinguistics, discourse analysis, pragmatics, and the ethnography of communication precisely because Vygotsky recognized the importance of both immediate contextual constraints and the wider social, historical, and cultural conditions of language use. Sources Goodwin, Charles and Alessandro Duranti. Rethinking Context: An Introduction, in Rethinking Context: Language as an Interactive Phenomenon. Cambridge University Press, 1992. Kramsch, Claire. Context and Culture in Language Teaching. Oxford University Press,  1993. Marshall, Alfred. Principles of Economics. Rev. ed, Prometheus Books, 1997. Mayes, Patricia.  Language, Social Structure, and Culture.  John Benjamins, 2003. Pike, Kenneth L. Linguistic Concepts: An Introduction to Tagmemics. University of Nebraska Press, 1982. Smith, Larry W. Context. Sociocultural Approaches to Language and Literacy: An Interactionist Perspective. Edited by Vera John-Steiner, Carolyn P. Panofsky, and Larry W. Smith. Cambridge University Press, 1994. Whitehead, Alfred North. Philosophers Do Not Think in a Vacuum. Dialogues of Alfred North Whitehead. Recorded by Lucien Price. David R. Godine, 2001.

The Declaration of Independence - 1186 Words

Political, Social and financial significance of the Declaration of Independence Often a single document defines and commemorates an event or a moment in time that is of importance. The Declaration of Independence is the principal document that defines and commemorates the birth of the United States and the independence of our nation. The Declaration of Independence defines the right of the people to defy the established order, to change their government, and to throw off an oppressor. [1] The Declaration of Independence expresses Americas foundation and independence and the basic freedoms that this nation strives to embody, such as life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness. The important thing about the Declaration of Independence is†¦show more content†¦Yet the general economic picture was far from rosy. War had spawned demoralizing extravagance, speculation and profiteering, with profits for some as indecently high as 300 percent. Runaway inflation had been ruinous to many citizens, and Congress had failed in its feeble attempts to curb economic laws. T he average citizen was probably worse off financially at the end of the shooting than the start. The whole economic and social atmosphere was unhealthy. A newly rich class of profiteers was noisily conspicuous, whereas many once-wealthy people were left destitute. The controversy leading to the Revolutionary war had bred a keen distaste for taxes and encouraged disrespect for the majesty of the law generally. John Adams has been shocked when gleefully told by a horse-jockey neighbor that the courts of justice were all closed, a plight that proved to be only temporary. Although each state was well prepared and eager to govern itself when Independence was declared, a state could not do some things on its own. It could not raise and maintain a large army. Americans realized that 13 small and separated forces would be no match for the big British army. Americans realized that if they wanted to win the war with Great Britain, they needed a single and strong army unde r a central control. For this and other reasons, the Second continental Congress made plans for aShow MoreRelatedThe Declaration Of Independence And The Declaration Of Independence1833 Words   |  8 Pagessocieties all over the world, the government has always been viewed as the powerhouse and reliable source for a country’s decision-making process. Another similar source of official government documentation exists in the Declaration of Independence. The Declaration of Independence was written by the third president of the United States, Thomas Jefferson. During that time period that Jefferson seemed to be the most significant towards the political spectrum, America was just about to enter a birthRead MoreThe Declaration Of Independence And Independence1501 Words   |  7 PagesThe Declaration of Independence The Declaration of Independence is one of the most important document in U.S history that helped led to this country s independence from Great Britain. The Declaration of Independence helped us earn our freedom to become an independent nation with our own rules. However, without Thomas Jefferson and the rest of their concerns and reasons for separating this wouldn t have been possible. The writing alone wouldn’t have made this document memorable.The use of rhetoricalRead MoreThe Declaration Of Independence And Independence877 Words   |  4 PagesThe Declaration of Independence The Declaration of Independence is without a doubt one of the most important documents ever to be written in American history so far. It was signed by fifty-six different men, all who were representatives from different states. The person who wrote the Declaration of Independence is someone who we all know and grew up learning about, the famous Thomas Jefferson. The purpose of it was to declare the 13 colonies in America free and independent from Great Britain, getRead MoreThe Declaration Of Independence And Independence969 Words   |  4 PagesThe US Constitution, The Declaration of Independence as well as the Letter to the Danbury Baptist are not just historical documents, but some of if not the most important documents of the history of our nation. Although, similar in many facets the intentions and the goal pursued by each highlight their individuality. The fact that the Declaration of Independence was the first to be implemented and signed is of significant importance as it set the pace and put in motion the proceeding documents thatRead MoreThe Declaration Of Independence And Independence1972 Words   |  8 PagesThe Declaration of Independence brought America its independence, and it self, as well as our constitution. The declaration of independence had many positive effects on America. The Declaration of Independence is the usual name of a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4, 1776. This stated that the thirteen American colonies, called themselves the thirteen newly independent sovereign states, and that they were no longer a part of the British Empire. Instead of staying in the BritishRead MoreThe Declaration Of Independence And Independence3280 Words   |  14 PagesWho were the writers of the Declaration of Independence? Who are our founding fathers and where did they receive these great ideas? I will examine the main writer of the Declaration of Independence Thomas Jefferson and look at the sources he used to begin our count ry. If Thomas Jefferson was a student at the United States Sergeant Major Academy, and he submitted his Declaration of Independence to turn it in would he pass? Were our founding fathers even great thinkers or were they just takingRead MoreThe Declaration Of Independence1330 Words   |  6 Pagesparagraph of the most significant of all American historical documents, the Declaration of Independence. The very theory of natural rights dramatically influenced the conception of this starting paragraph. Natural rights is a political theory that strongly asserts that each individual who enters into any society possesses certain rights that no government can deny. The Declaration of Independence is a full and formal declaration adopted on July 4, 1776 by the representatives of the thirteen coloniesRead MoreThe Declaration Of Independence And Its Independence1765 Words   |  8 PagesThe Declaration of Independence remains a sacred but a poorly understood document to numerous people. To understand the most significant issue found in the document itself, we must first observe the historical context behind the text itself. Commonly, the text itself represents a range of America’s efforts to create a new and independent society but what made Americans so prone to declare itself its independence? As the document reveals a list of issues that ultimately led civilians to free themselvesRead MoreThe Declaration of Independence1200 Words   |  5 Pages The Declaration of Independence is one of the most remarkable documents of the United States of America. The elaborate document contains almost fourteen-hundred words including a basic structure divided into two parts and within the two divided parts contains four main ideas within seven components. The declaration is not just any standard written document; it is a work of art painted by colonists who are driven by rage because of King George III of Great Britain injustices’ toward the coloniesRead MoreSimilarities Between The Declaration Of Independence And The Declaration Of Independence948 Words   |  4 Pageswithstood the test of time and have become statement pieces for our society. In this group, the Declaration of Independence by Thomas Jefferson and Common Sense by Thomas Paine both hold high positions. Thomas Paine wrote â€Å"The Crisis†, which was a chapter in his pamphlet Common Sense, which advocated that the thirteen original colonies gain independence from Great Britain. The Declaration of Independence was a government document written in 1776 that proclaims America a state of democracy not connected

Sally Jameson Free Essays

To: Prof. Chalmers From: Travis Ramme and Meghan Smith Date: April 26th, 2007 Re: Ms. Chalmers’ Compensation Choices 1. We will write a custom essay sample on Sally Jameson or any similar topic only for you Order Now Ignoring taxation and other constraints, Ms. Jameson is better off taking the options. The stock currently trading at $18. 75 and the exercise price is $35. This may seem drastically far away. However, 5 year T-Bill rates are currently at 6. 02%. Combined with a current stock volatility of approximately 42%, this allows each option to be valued at approximately $4. 93. At this amount, Ms. Jameson’s options would be presently worth $14,790 were she to sell them. Where she to hold them instead, Ms. Jameson’s potential upside is limitless. Her possible gains would be equal to her number of options multiplied by the difference between the stock price and her exercise price of $35, assuming that the stock price is higher than $35. There is risk involved, however. If Ms. Jameson decides to hold onto the options and not sell them, it would be possible for her to earn nothing. If the stocks price where to stay below $35 dollars, Ms. Jameson’s options would be worth nothing. Comparatively, the $5000 cash bonus, where it to be invested over the 5 years at the risk free rate of 6. 02%, would yield only $6697. 44. 2. If Ms. Jameson was not allowed to sell her options before the allotted 5 years, the choice to take the options would have much more inherent risk. The current value of the options is derived from their market value. This market value means nothing if Ms. Jameson cannot sell the options. If this where the case, Ms. Jameson’s potential profits would be created solely by the Telstar stock rising to a price that was greater than $35 by the end of 5 years. In fact, to equal the $6697. 44 value of the bonus she could have chosen instead, the stock would have to reach a price of at least $37. 23. This value would allow the 3000 options to be exercised for a profit of $6697. 44. This, however, is ignoring the fact that Ms. Jameson would have to pay taxes and transaction fees. If Ms. Jameson was not allowed to sell her options, she should choose the $5000 up front bonus. It represents a less risky asset. 3. Companies are often inclined to use stock options to compensate employees rather than exhausting cash flow. It does not directly cost a company anything in terms of â€Å"accounting costs. † There is, however, an implied economic cost equal to that of outside investors’ costs. The cost of a stock option is more or less a perceived cost, as the true value is not concrete and is virtually unknown at the time of issuance. This is due to the length of the option and specified strike price being of possible value at expiration date. The current value of an option is dependent on the performance of the company and its stock price, that is, in the future. Executive stock options help align an executive employee’s monetary compensation with both individual performance and the overall performance of the firm. In this sense, an executive is encouraged to act in the best interests of the firm and to also to take some risks to grow the company in which they work for and thus, increase the company’s stock prices. Stock options are an effective way to correlate performance and compensation, but mainly only for employees that are in positions that can have an affect on the company’s performance. Employees in executive, decision-making positions have the ability to impact the profitability and growth of the organization, whereas administrative assistant positions would not be as likely to improve performance due to being compensated with stock options. Companies could better individualize compensation packages for different positions. Executive positions fit the stock options benefit plan while administrative assistants may prefer stock purchasing rights rather than options. Other employees that fall somewhere in the middle would be better suited for a combination of monetary compensation, stock options and stock in the firm. In addition, stock options with a lessened length of time to the expiration date may prove to drive option-holding employees to set short-term, achievable goals. Employees would be given successive stock options to promote their care for the company without feeling as though they are being forced to stay with the organization. This set up of granting stock options would also help to encourage performance of employees to lead to both the short and long term success of the firm. . If Ms. Jameson decided that the option was a better deal, but was concerned with being too committed and reliant on the fortunes of Telstar, she could modify her compensation package to better suit her individual needs. Ms. Jameson would be taking considerable risk by keeping all of her bonus in Telstar for stock options with such a lengthy expiration date a nd also due to the historical data of Telstar showing that only stock prices reached $35 (the exercise price) only once. Instead of holding on to all 3,000 issued stock options, Ms. Jameson could keep a portion of the stock options and trade some in the market. Keeping some Telstar stock options would help keep her tied to the company without making her feel that she is bound to the company for the next five years or that she is facing enormous risk of losing her bonus altogether. By doing this, Ms. Jameson would provide herself with the opportunity to make investments outside of Telstar, and thus, better diversify her investments. How to cite Sally Jameson, Papers

Value Chain Activities

Question: Discuss about the case study of Value Chain Activities. Answer: Introduction to Value Chain Analysis There are different set of activities which any company in any specific industry needs to carry out so as to provide valuable services or products to its customers. It forms a very important part any companys competitive strategy (Fearne, 2012). It contains a set of primary and secondary activities which is presented in the next section. Fig. 1: Value Chain by Michael Porter Primary Activities The Primary activities are the one which the company needs to perform and excel in so as to create the value which will satisfy its customers. As per Michael Porters value chain (Fig. 1), the primary activities include Inbound Logistics, Operations, Outbound Logistics, Sales and Marketing and Service. These activities define the way the company operates and have direct impact on its reputation in the market. Secondary Activities The secondary activities support the primary activities to be performed by the company in order to create the valuable product or service. These include the activities like Procurement, Technology, Human Resource Management and Firm Infrastructure. These help the company to carry out their primary activities (Hollensen, 2015). Cost Advantages and Value Chain The company performs cost benefit analysis every time it starts its operations. These help in identifying the shortcomings in the value chain process. It also helps in getting to know the exact cost advantages that the company will achieve with the proper implementation of its value chain. Differentiation and Value Chain The value chain comprises of activities like logistics, operations, marketing where companies try to apply unique strategies which will give them a competitive edge over their competitors. This creates a differentiation between products and services provided by them with those of the competitors and help the company to provide valuable product to their customers. Technology and the Value Chain Technology acts as a supporting tool within the value chain. It helps the companies to enhance their primary activities with inclusion of newer technologies in the respective fields (Soosay, 2012). For example, the companies use latest supply chain tool to track their logistics and operations. The technology also helps in bringing all the departments within a company in the same platform. Linkages between Value Chain Activities The value chain activities are tightly linked with each other. All the activities are closely related and cannot provide value with any of the missing activity. All the primary activities are required to complete the supply chain cycle in the best possible manner. To complete the primary activities, supporting activities like human resource, technology, infrastructure and procurement are very much essential. Outsourcing Value Chain Activities Some of the value chain activities are generally outsourced to third party companies so as to allow the firm to focus on their core competency (Simatupang, 2014). Primary activities like Inbound and Outbound logistics are generally outsourced to logistics provider so as to keep the firms focus towards operations which will provide the product which will satisfy the customers. Conclusion In the above sections, we have discussed about the primary and secondary activities of the value chain analysis and its linkages with various other parameters. Companies try to differentiate themselves with other competitors with the help of value chain analysis. References Fearne, A., Garcia Martinez, M. and Dent, B., 2012. Dimensions of sustainable value chains: implications for value chain analysis. Supply Chain Management: An International Journal, 17(6), pp.575-581. Hollensen, S., 2015. Marketing management: A relationship approach. Pearson Education. Soosay, C., Fearne, A. and Dent, B., 2012. Sustainable value chain analysis-A case study of Oxford Landing from vine to dine. Supply Chain Management: An International Journal, 17(1), pp.68-77. Simatupang, T.M., Piboonrungroj, P. and Williams, S.J., 2014. The Emergence of Value Chain Thinking. Proceedings of T-LOG.